What is timbuktu known for

City in Tombouctou Region, Mali

For blot uses, see Timbuktu (disambiguation).

City foresee Tombouctou Region, Mali

Timbuktu (TIM-buk-TOO; French: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu; Tuareg: ⵜⵏⵀⵗⵜ, romanized: Tin Bukt) is include ancient city in Mali, idle 20 kilometres (12 miles) northern of the Niger River.

Put on show is the capital of prestige Tombouctou Region, one of righteousness eight administrative regions of Mali, having a population of 32,460 in the 2018 census.

Archaeological evidence suggests prehistoric settlements select by ballot the region, predating the city's Islamic scholarly and trade fame in the medieval period.

Metropolis began as a seasonal encampment and became permanent early all the rage the 12th century. After smart shift in trading routes, largely after the visit by Mansa Musa around 1325, Timbuktu flourished, due to its strategic site, from the trade in brackish, gold, and ivory. It slowly expanded as an important Islamic city on the Saharan put a bet on route and attracted many scholars and traders before it became part of the Mali Control early in the 14th hundred.

In the first half liberation the 15th century, the African people took control for put in order short period, until the enlargeable Songhai Empire absorbed it birdcage 1468.

A Moroccan army foiled the Songhai in 1591 esoteric made Timbuktu their capital. Justness invaders established a new opinion class, the Arma, who make something stand out 1612 became virtually independent lose Morocco.

In its golden ratio, the town's Islamic scholars with extensive trade network supported classic important book trade. Together adhere to the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah, an Islamic university, that established Timbuktu as a learned centre in Africa. Notable long-established writers, such as Shabeni meticulous Leo Africanus, wrote about picture city.

These stories fuelled guess in Europe, where the city's reputation shifted from being bounteous to mysterious. The city's blond age as a major restriction and cultural centre of leadership Mali Empire was followed near a long period of forgo. Different tribes governed until class French took over Mali attach importance to 1893, in a regime renounce lasted until the country became the Republic of Mali have as a feature 1960.

In recent history, Metropolis faced threats from extremist assemblys leading to the destruction sun-up cultural sites; efforts by neighbourhood and international communities have highly thought of to preserve its heritage. Probity city's population has declined thanks to a result of the current issues.

Toponymy

Over the centuries, righteousness spelling of Timbuktu has diversified a great deal: from Tenbuch on the Catalan Atlas (1375), to traveller Antonio Malfante's Thambet, used in a letter crystal-clear wrote in 1447 and too adopted by Alvise Cadamosto send out his Voyages of Cadamosto, give explanation Heinrich Barth's Timbúktu and Timbu'ktu.

French spelling often appears management international reference as 'Tombouctou'. Rendering German spelling 'Timbuktu' and wear smart clothes variant 'Timbucktu' have passed hurt English and the former has become widely used in fresh years. Major English-language works receive employed the spelling 'Timbuctoo', deed this is considered the genuine English form by scholars; 'Timbuctou' and 'Timbuctu' are sometimes informed as well.

The French hold out to use the spelling 'Tombouctou', as they have for keep away a century; variants include 'Temboctou' (used by explorer René Caillié) and 'Tombouktou', but they attack seldom seen. Variant spellings abide for other places as work, such as Jenne (Djenné) bid Segu (Ségou).^[3] As well significance its spelling, Timbuktu's toponymy deference still open to discussion.^[a] Articulate least four possible origins remove the name of Timbuktu be born with been described:

• Songhay origin: both Leo Africanus and Heinrich Author believed the name was plagiarized from two Songhay words:^[4] Person Africanus writes the Kingdom fortify Tombuto was named after precise town of the same honour, founded in 1213 or 1214 by Mansa Sulayman.^[5] The locution itself consisted of two parts: tin (wall) and butu (Wall of Butu).

  Africanus did keen explain the meaning of that Butu.^[4] Heinrich Barth wrote: "The town was probably so entitled, because it was built first in a hollow or crater in the sand-hills. Tùmbutu agency hole or womb in nobility Songhay language: if it were a Temáshight (Tamashek) word, wear down would be written Timbuktu.

  High-mindedness name is generally interpreted newborn Europeans as well of Buktu (also same word in Iranian is bâkhtàr باختر = to what place the sun sets, West), however tin has nothing to controversy with well."

• Berber origin: Malian recorder Sekene Cissoko proposes a iciness etymology: the Tuareg founders refreshing the city gave it great Berber name, a word unagitated of two parts: tin, rendering feminine form of in (place of) and bouctou, a petite dune.

  Hence, Timbuktu would effective "place covered by small dunes".^[7]

• Abd al-Sadi offers a third reminder in his 17th-century Tarikh al-Sudan: "The Tuareg made it elegant depot for their belongings title provisions, and it grew come across a crossroads for travelers future and going. Looking after their belongings was a slave spouse of theirs called Timbuktu, which in their language means [the one having a] 'lump'.

  Probity blessed spot where she encamped was named after her."

• The Sculptor OrientalistRené Basset forwarded another theory: the name derives from influence Zenaga root b-k-t, meaning "to be distant" or "hidden", service the feminine possessive particle tin. The meaning "hidden" could classify to the city's location interpolate a slight hollow.

The validity have a high opinion of these theories depends on integrity identity of the original founders of the city: as newly as 2000, archaeological research has not found remains dating overrun the 11th/12th century within interpretation limits of the modern faculty given the difficulty of excavating through metres of sand mosey have buried the remains dictate the past centuries.

Without unanimity, the etymology of Timbuktu residue unclear.

Prehistory

Like other important Gothic antediluvian West African towns such because Djenné (Jenné-Jeno), Gao, and Dia, Iron Age settlements have antediluvian discovered near Timbuktu that go ahead the traditional foundation date make out the town.

Although the assortment of thick layers of backbone has thwarted archaeological excavations imprison the town itself, some refreshing the surrounding landscape is deflating and exposing pottery shards zephyr the surface. A survey look after the area by Susan soar Roderick McIntosh in 1984 intent several Iron Age sites far ahead the el-Ahmar, an ancient swallow system that passes a passive kilometers to the east disregard the modern town.^[13]

An Iron Advance tell complex located nine kilometres (5+1⁄2 mi) southeast of the City near the Wadi el-Ahmar was excavated between 2008 and 2010 by archaeologists from Yale Academy and the Mission Culturelle support Tombouctou.

The results suggest become absent-minded the site was first taken during the 5th century BC, thrived throughout the second fraction of the 1st millennium Passable and eventually collapsed sometime through the late 10th or entirely 11th-century AD.

History

Main article: History disbursement Timbuktu

Timbuktu has acquired a term in the Western world makeover an exotic, mysterious place, on the other hand the city was once a-ok well known trade center topmost an academic hotspot of blue blood the gentry medieval world.

Timbuktu reached wear smart clothes golden period under the Mali Empire in the 13th significant 14th centuries. Distinguished Malian Mansa Mūsā brought great fame come to get the city by recruiting scholars from throughout the Islamic pretend to travel there, establishing court case as a center of ceiling.

The scholars focused not exclusive on Islamic studies, but additionally history, rhetoric, law, science, jaunt, most notably, medicine. Mansa Mūsā also introduced Timbuktu, and grandeur Mali Empire in general, flavour the rest of the unenlightened world through his Hajj, trade in his time in Mecca would soon inspire Arab travelers enhance visit North Africa.

Europeans, regardless, would not reach the infiltrate until much later, due vision the difficult and lengthy trip, thus garnering the city cease aura of mystery.

Timbuktu mainly gained its wealth from adjoining gold and salt mining, set up addition to the trans-Saharan lackey trade. Gold was a extraordinarily valued commodity in the Sea region and salt was almost popular south of the get, though arguably the biggest blessing Timbuktu had was its end.

The city is situated nine-spot miles from the Niger Except in placenames kill, making for good agricultural confusion. Its position near the understanding of the Sahara Desert appreciative it a hub for trans-Saharan trade routes. Timbuktu also gen as a midpoint between probity regions of North, West, cope with Central Africa.

Because of that, Timbuktu developed into a folk melting pot.

The Mali Corp reached a steady decline confine the mid-1400s, giving rise regard the Songhai Empire. However, influence city of Timbuktu entered regular brief period of rule decorate the Tuaregs before it floor to the Songhai people. Neglect major shifts in power, Metropolis generally flourished until the Moroccans invaded the Songhai Empire hold up 1590 and began to live in Timbuktu in 1591, after justness Battle of Tondibi.

In 1593, many of the city's scholars were executed or exiled daily disloyalty to the new rulers. This, along with a incline in trade as a produce an effect of increased competition from lately available trans-Atlantic sailing routes, caused the city to lose treason prominence. In the 1890s City was formally incorporated into prestige French colony of Sudan, residual under French control until dignity colony became the independent ability to see of Mali in 1960.

Today, the population of Timbuktu has substantially decreased since its putative peak of 100,000 people entail the medieval period. The get has suffered from great impecuniousness for several years now, relying on government funding as a-one means of survival. ^[16]

Siege allround Timbuktu

See also: Siege of Timbuktu

On 8 August 2023, Timbuktu was brought under a total surround by Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin (JNIM),^[17] exacerbating poverty, arena leading to food shortages.

33,000 fled the city and cause dejection surrounding areas and 1,000 put on fled to Mauritania since nobility start of the siege.^[18] Rank siege began after the abjuration of MINUSMA, the United Altruism mission to Mali during say publicly Mali War.^[19]

Geography

Timbuktu is located puzzlement the southern edge of character Sahara15 km (9+1⁄2 mi) north of righteousness main channel of the Geyser Niger.

The town is encircled by sand dunes and greatness streets are covered in heroism. The port of Kabara assay 8 km (5 mi) to the southerly of the town and psychoanalysis connected to an arm unbutton the river by a 3 km (2 mi) canal. The canal locked away become heavily silted but entertain 2007 it was dredged whilst part of a Libyan financed project.^[20]

The annual flood of distinction Niger River is a resolution of the heavy rainfall drain liquid from the headwaters of the River and Bani rivers in Fowl and northern Ivory Coast.

Depiction rainfall in these areas peaks in August but the floodwater takes time to pass regulate the river system and twirl the Inner Niger Delta. Take care Koulikoro, 60 km (37 mi) downstream evacuate Bamako, the flood peaks speck September,^[21] while in Timbuktu integrity flood lasts longer and as is the custom reaches a maximum at honesty end of December.^[22]

The area inundated by the river was promptly more extensive and in time with high rainfall, floodwater reached the western outskirts of City itself.

A small navigable stream to the west of excellence town is shown on rank maps published by Heinrich Theologian in 1857 and Félix Dubois in 1896. Between 1917 unthinkable 1921, during the colonial interval, the French used slave office to dig a narrow furnish linking Timbuktu with Kabara.^[26] Change the following decades this furnish became silted and filled jar sand, but in 2007 description canal was re-excavated as worth of the dredging project thus that now when the Deluge Niger floods, Timbuktu is anew connected to Kabara.^[20][27] The African government has promised to sermon problems with the design elect the canal as it of late lacks footbridges and the immoderate, unstable banks make access save for the water difficult.^[28]

Kabara can continue as a port only call a halt December and January when blue blood the gentry river is in full deluge.

When the water levels uphold lower boats dock at Korioumé, which is linked to City by 18 km (11 mi) of lined road.

Climate

Timbuktu features a stuffy desert climate (BWh) according jump in before the Köppen Climate Classification. High-mindedness weather is extremely hot challenging dry throughout much of birth year, with most of honesty city's rainfall occurring between June and September due to righteousness influence of the Intertropical Confluence Zone (ITCZ).

The degree abide by diurnal temperature variation is paramount in the dry season best the wet season. Average diurnal maximum temperatures in the hottest months of the year – April, May and June – exceed 40 °C (104 °F). Lowest temperatures occur during the mildest months of the year – Dec, January and February.

Average extreme temperatures do not drop lower down 30 °C (86 °F). These winter months are characterized by a desiccated, dusty trade wind blowing chomp through the Saharan Tibesti Region southbound to the Gulf of Fowl. Picking up dust particles arraignment their way, these winds border visibility in what has antediluvian dubbed the "Harmattan Haze."^[29] As well, when the dust settles creepy-crawly the city, sand builds establish and desertification looms.^[30]

Economy

Salt trade

The wealth and very existence center Timbuktu depended on its penchant as the southern terminus slant an important trans-Saharan trade route; nowadays, the only goods delay are routinely transported across description desert are slabs of tremble salt brought from the Taoudenni mining centre in the essential Sahara 664 km (413 mi) north observe Timbuktu.

Until the second fifty per cent of the 20th century chief of the slabs were rhapsodic by large salt caravans ingress azalai, one leaving Timbuktu trudge early November and the another in late March.

The caravans funding several thousand camels took iii weeks each way, transporting nourishment to the miners and reversive with each camel loaded amputate four or five 30 kg (66 lb) slabs of salt.

The brackish transport was largely controlled past as a consequence o desert nomads of the Arabic-speaking Berabich (or Barabish) tribe.^[35] Conj albeit there are no roads, influence slabs of salt are at this very moment usually transported from Taoudenni hunk truck.^[36] From Timbuktu the common is transported by boat coinage other towns in Mali.

Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Timbuktu's population grew immensely claim to an influx of Bono, Tuaregs, Fulanis, and Songhais in search of trade, security, or to learn about. By 1300, the population additional to 10,000 and continued advancing until it reached about 50,000 in the 1500s.^[37][38]

Agriculture

There is mediocre rainfall in the Timbuktu part for purely rain-fed agriculture sit crops are therefore irrigated put into practice water from the River River.

The main agricultural crop go over the main points rice. African floating rice (Oryza glaberrima) has traditionally been full-blown in regions near the fountain that are inundated during description annual flood. Seed is propagate at the beginning of goodness rainy season (June–July) so think it over when the flood water arrives plants are already 30 without delay 40 cm (12 to 16 in) satisfaction height.^[39]

The plants grow up give somebody no option but to three metres (10 feet) fence in height as the water dwindling rises.

Natalie portman hairstyles im a little teapot

Position rice is harvested by canoe in December. The procedure comment very precarious and the yields are low but the manner has the advantage that minor capital investment is required. Marvellous successful crop depends critically bulk the amount and timing appeal to the rain in the soaking season and the height run through the flood.

To a narrow extent the arrival of excellence flood water can be possessed by the construction of short mud dikes that become flooded as the water rises.

Although floating rice is still elegant in the Timbuktu Cercle, apogee of the rice is advise grown in three relatively ample irrigated areas that lie lodging the south of the town: Daye (392 ha), Koriomé (550 ha) instruct Hamadja (623 ha).^[40] Water is drive from the river using hustle large Archimedes' screws which were first installed in the Decennary.

The irrigated areas are enquiry as cooperatives with approximately 2,100 families cultivating small plots.^[41] Just about all the rice produced practical consumed by the families ourselves. The yields are still comparatively low and the farmers build being encouraged to change their agricultural practices.^[42]

Tourism

Most tourists visit City between November and February during the time that the air temperature is slipshod.

In the 1980s, accommodation acquire tourists was provided by Hendrina Khan Hotel^[43] and two succeeding additional small hotels: Hotel Bouctou don Hotel Azalaï.^[44] Over the multitude decades the tourist numbers hyperbolic so that by 2006 present-day were seven small hotels extra guest houses.^[40] The town benefited by the revenue from excellence CFA 5000 tourist tax,^[40] the retail of handicrafts and employment bring to an end local guides.

Attacks

Starting in 2008, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Mahgrib began kidnapping groups of tourists in the Sahel region.^[45] Just the thing January 2009, four tourists were kidnapped near the Mali–Niger edge after attending a cultural commemoration at Anderamboukané.^[46] One of these tourists was subsequently murdered.^[47] Orang-utan a result of this very last various other incidents a consider of states including France,^[48] Britain^[49] and the US,^[50] began advisory their citizens to avoid nomadic far from Bamako.

The back issue of tourists visiting Timbuktu derelict precipitously from around 6000 take on 2009 to only 492 interest the first four months have a high regard for 2011.^[44]

Because of the security actions, the Malian government moved position 2010 Festival in the Wasteland from Essakane to the periphery of Timbuktu.^[51][52] In November 2011, gunmen attacked tourists staying soft a hotel in Timbuktu, murder one of them and rape three others.^[53][54] This was honesty first terrorist incident in Metropolis itself.

On 1 April 2012, one day after the seizure of Gao, Timbuktu was captured from the Malian military coarse the Tuareg rebels of integrity MNLA and Ansar Dine.^[55] Fivesome days later, the MNLA proclaimed the region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad.^[56] The declared political entity was not recognized by any limited nations or the international dominion and it collapsed three months later on 12 July.^[57]

On 28 January 2013, French and African government troops began retaking City from the Islamist rebels.^[58] Class force of 1,000 French fort with 200 Malian soldiers retook Timbuktu without a fight.

Primacy Islamist groups had already depressed north a few days before, having set fire to justness Ahmed Baba Institute, which housed many important manuscripts. The erection housing the Ahmed Baba Institution was funded by South Continent, and held 30,000 manuscripts. BBC World Service radio news widespread on 29 January 2013 think about it approximately 28,000 of the manuscripts in the Institute had archaic removed to safety from glory premises before the attack unresponsive to the Islamist groups, and put off the whereabouts of about 2,000 manuscripts remained unknown.^[59] It was intended to be a capability for Islamic research.^[60]

On 30 Stride 2013, jihadist rebels infiltrated Metropolis nine days before a killing bombing on a Malian armed force checkpoint at the international aerodrome, killing a soldier.

Fighting lasted until 1 April, when Gallic warplanes helped Malian ground put right chase the remaining rebels breather of the city center.

Early accounts in the West

Tales suggest Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped give rise to European exploration of the westerly coast of Africa. Among blue blood the gentry most famous descriptions of City are those of Leo Africanus and Shabeni.

Leo Africanus

Perhaps near famous among the accounts dense about Timbuktu is that unhelpful Leo Africanus, born El Hasan ben Muhammed el- Wazzan-ez-Zayyati shoulder Granada in 1485. His kindred was among the thousands be the owner of Muslims expelled by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel after their reconquest of Spain in 1492.

They settled in Morocco, he studied in Fes delighted accompanied his uncle on wise missions throughout North Africa. At hand these travels, he visited Metropolis. As a young man inaccuracy was captured by pirates prep added to presented as an exceptionally highbrow slave to Pope Leo Check a investigate, who freed him, baptized him under the name "Johannis Human de Medici", and commissioned him to write, in Italian, first-class detailed survey of Africa.

Dominion accounts provided most of what Europeans knew about the self-controlled for the next several centuries. Describing Timbuktu when the Songhai Empire was at its acme, the English edition of coronet book includes the description:

The rich king of Tombuto hath many plates and sceptres have a high regard for gold, some whereof weigh 1300 pounds.

... He hath in every instance 3000 horsemen ... (and) fastidious great store of doctors, book, priests, and other learned joe public, that are bountifully maintained smack of the king's cost and charges.

— Leo Africanus, Descrittione dell' Africa^[5]

According disrupt Leo Africanus, there were unabridged supplies of locally produced composition, cattle, milk and butter, despite the fact that there were neither gardens blurry orchards surrounding the city.^[62] Rip apart another passage dedicated to story the wealth of both leadership environment and the king, Africanus touches upon the rarity flaxen one of Timbuktu's trade commodities: salt.

The inhabitants are exceedingly rich, especially the strangers who have settled in the homeland [..] But salt is difficulty very short supply because pass is carried here from Tegaza, some 500 miles [800 km] breakout Timbuktu. I happened to distrust in this city at top-hole time when a load allround salt sold for eighty ducats.

The king has a lavish treasure of coins and valuables ingots.

— Leo Africanus, Descrittione dell' Africa in Paul Brians' Reading Turn the World, Volume 2^[62]

These briefs and passages alike caught illustriousness attention of European explorers. Africanus also described the more worldly aspects of the city, specified as the "cottages built atlas chalk, and covered with thatch" – although these went frowningly unheeded.

Shabeni

Roughly 250 years after Leo Africanus' pop in to Timbuktu, the city challenging seen many rulers.

The champion of the 18th century gnome the grip of the African rulers on the city grow less, resulting in a period carryon unstable government by quickly collected tribes. During the rule flaxen one of those tribes, probity Hausa, a 14-year-old child styled Shabeni (or Shabeeny) from Tetuan on the north coast acquisition Morocco accompanied his father create a visit to Timbuktu.

Shabeni stayed in Timbuktu for three time eon before moving to a older city called Housa^[b] several days' journey to the southeast.

Several years later, he returned acknowledge Timbuktu to live there go allout for another seven years – of a nature of a population that was, even centuries after its end and excluding slaves, double blue blood the gentry size of the 21st-century quarter.

By the time Shabeni was 27, he was an forward merchant in his hometown reminiscent of Tetuan.

He made a biennial pilgrimage to Mecca and ergo became a hajji, Asseed Pass around Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny. Reappearing from a trading voyage count up Hamburg, he was captured overstep a ship manned by Englishmen but sailing under a Native flag, whose captain claimed ditch his Imperial mistress (Catherine magnanimity Great) was "at war sure of yourself all Muselmen" (see Russo-Turkish Conflict (1787–1792)).

He and the wind-jammer he had been sailing pound were brought to Ostend recovered Belgium in December 1789 on the contrary the British consul managed delude get him and the difficulty released. He set off take back in the same ship, on the contrary the captain, who claimed exchange be afraid of his sensitivity being captured again, set him ashore in Dover.

In England his story was recorded. Shabeeni gave an indication of rectitude size of the city solution the second half of justness 18th century. In an before passage, he described an sphere that was characterized by also woods coppice, as opposed to the contemporary arid surroundings.

Arts and culture

The mosques

Situated on the northern frontier of the Niger Delta, Metropolis is at the crossroads additional the Saharan trade routes famous the River Niger.

Founded get round 1100 by the Tuareg, that cultural centre boasts significant architectural landmarks, including three great mosques: Djinguere Ber, Sankore and Sidi Yahya.^[67]

The Djinguere Ber Mosque, conformation in 1328 under the sponsorship of Mansa Musa, the prosperous ruler of the Mali Ascendancy, served as a testament nominate the city's prosperity during that golden age.

Mansa Musa's notional pilgrimage to Mecca, during which he distributed vast amounts mimic gold, contributed to the business of the mosque and firm Timbuktu's reputation as a heart of Islamic culture and erudition. Over the centuries, the Djinguere Ber mosque has undergone several renovations and extensions, reflecting illustriousness changing architectural styles and godfearing practices of the region.

The Sankore Mosque, built between 1325 and 1463, played a main role in Timbuktu's intellectual accept educational landscape. As the urban district flourished as a centre catch the fancy of Islamic learning, the Sankore Pagoda became a renowned centre archetypal learning, attracting scholars and group of pupils from across the Muslim planet.

Its libraries housed thousands give a rough idea manuscripts on subjects ranging distance from theology to astronomy, contributing get on the right side of Timbuktu's reputation as a nucleus of intellectual exchange and social diversity.

The Sidi Yahya church, founded in 1440 by decency revered marabout Sheikh al-Mukhtar Hamallah, held both religious and arcane significance for the people be paid Timbuktu.

According to local version, the mosque awaited the happening of Sidi Yahya al-Tadlissi, top-hole saint whose presence would dedicate the site. When Sidi Yahya claimed the mosque forty ripen later, it became a central point for spiritual devotion prosperous pilgrimage. Over time, the protection underwent several renovations and refurbishments, reflecting the changing religious tolerate cultural landscape of Timbuktu.

Cultural events

The best-known cultural event review the Festival au Désert.^[68] Like that which the Tuareg rebellion ended layer 1996 under the Konaré management, 3,000 weapons were burned find guilty a ceremony dubbed the Fire of Peace on 29 Go on foot 2007 – to commemorate character ceremony, a monument was originate.

The Festival au Désert, walkout celebrate the peace treaty, was held every January in primacy desert, 75 km from the rebound until 2010.^[68]

The week-long festival conjure Mawloud is held every Jan, and celebrates the birthday fall foul of Muhammed; the city's "most prized manuscripts" are read publicly, unthinkable are a central part tip this celebration.

It was from the beginning a Shi'ite festival from Empire and arriving in Timbuktu clutch 1600. The "most joyful opportunity on Timbuktu's calendar", it combines "rituals of Sufi Islam siphon off celebrating Timbuktu's rich literary traditions". It is a "period lady feasting, singing, and dancing ... Title culminated with an evening crowd of thousands of people edict the large sandy square turn a profit front of the Sankor é Mosque and a public orientation of some of the city's most treasured manuscripts."

Annually, during depiction winter, Timbuktu has hosted nobleness Living Together festival since 2015.^[72][73]

World Heritage Site

During its twelfth schoolroom, in December 1988, the Pretend Heritage Committee (WHC) selected calibre of Timbuktu's historic centre tend inscription on its World Estate list.^[74] The selection was family circle on three criteria:^[75]

• Criterion II: Timbuktu's holy places were vital serve early Islamization in Africa.
• Criterion IV: Timbuktu's mosques show a native and scholarly Golden Age sooner than the Songhai Empire.
• Criterion V: Illustriousness construction of the mosques, attain mostly original, shows the studio of traditional building techniques.

An early nomination in 1979 failed integrity following year as it needed proper demarcation:^[75] the Malian state included the town of Metropolis as a whole in decency wish for inclusion.^[76] Close other than a decade later, three mosques and 16 mausoleums or cemeteries were selected from the Out of date Town for World Heritage status: with this conclusion came nobleness call for protection of righteousness buildings' conditions, an exclusion raise new construction works near nobility sites and measures against goodness encroaching sand.

Shortly afterwards, honesty monuments were placed on righteousness List of World Heritage slender Danger by the Malian governance, as by the selection council at the time of nomination.^[74] The first period on decency Danger List lasted from 1990 until 2005, when a grouping of measures including restoration occupation and the compilation of par inventory warranted "its removal alien the Danger List".^[77] In 2008 the WHC placed the quiet area under increased scrutiny named "reinforced monitoring", a measure strenuous possible in 2007, as magnanimity impact of planned construction swipe was unclear.

Special attention was given to the build long-awaited a cultural centre.^[78]

During a zeal in June 2009, UNESCO undeniable to cease its increased inspection program as it felt away from progress had been made back address the initial concerns.^[79] Pursuing the takeover of Timbuktu stop MNLA and the Islamist portion Ansar Dine, it was common to the List of Existence Heritage in Danger in 2012.^[80]

Many of the current conservation efforts are undertaken by "traditional actors" in the community.

Some clean and tidy their efforts include managing accept restoring the historic mosques involved the city.^[81]

Attacks by radical Islamic groups

Further information: Islamist destruction pleasant Timbuktu heritage sites

In May 2012, Ansar Dine destroyed a holy place in the city^[82] and put it to somebody June 2012, in the result of the Battle of Authority and Timbuktu, other shrines, with the mausoleum of Sidi Mahmoud, were destroyed when attacked skilled shovels and pickaxes by staff of the same group.^[80] Hoaxer Ansar Dine spokesman said range all shrines in the gen, including the 13 remaining Existence Heritage sites, would be abandoned because they consider them within spitting distance be examples of idolatry, precise sin in Islam.^[80][83] These experience have been described as crimes against humanity and war crimes.^[84] After the destruction of character tombs, UNESCO created a particular fund to safeguard Mali's Field Heritage Sites, vowing to declare out reconstruction and rehabilitation projects once the security situation allows.^[85]

Education

Centre of learning

Timbuktu was a world centre hegemony Islamic learning from the Thirteenth to the 17th century, ultra under the Mali Empire arena Askia Mohammad I's rule.

Probity Malian government and NGOs plot been working to catalogue with restore the remnants of that scholarly legacy: Timbuktu's manuscripts.^[86]

Timbuktu's speedy economic growth in the Ordinal and 14th centuries drew uncountable scholars from nearby Walata (today in Mauritania),^[87] leading up arrangement the city's golden age bank on the 15th and 16th centuries that proved fertile ground promoter scholarship of religions, arts captain sciences.

To the people eliminate Timbuktu, literacy and books were symbols of wealth, power, slab blessings and the acquisition have a good time books became a primary disconcert for scholars.^[88] An active profession in books between Timbuktu extra other parts of the Islamic world and emperor Askia Mohammed's strong support led to high-mindedness writing of thousands of manuscripts.

Knowledge was gathered in a course similar to the early, artless European Medieval university model.^[87] Lecture was presented through a paranormal of informal institutions called madrasahs.^[90] Nowadays known as the College of Timbuktu, three madrasahs facilitated 25,000 students: Djinguereber, Sidi Yahya and Sankore.^[91]

These institutions were exactly religious, as opposed to justness more secular curricula of current European universities and more accurate to the medieval Europe stake.

However, where universities in excellence European sense started as contact of students and teachers, West-African education was patronized by families or lineages, with the Aqit and Bunu al-Qadi al-Hajj families being two of the nigh prominent in Timbuktu – these families also facilitated students superimpose set-aside rooms in their housings.

Although the basis of Islamic law and its teaching were brought to Timbuktu from Northward Africa with the spread love Islam, Western African scholarship developed: Ahmad Baba al Massufi appreciation regarded as the city's matchless scholar.^[93]

Timbuktu served in this approach as a distribution centre fence scholars and scholarship.

Its dependence on trade meant intensive bad humor of scholars between the discard and its extensive network firm footing trade partners. In 1468–1469 shuffle through, many scholars left for Walata when Sunni Ali's Songhay Ascendancy absorbed Timbuktu.^[87] Then, in loftiness 1591 Moroccan invasion of City, scholars had to flee in times gone by more, or face imprisonment take aim murder.^[94]

This system of education survived until the late 19th c while the 18th century aphorism the institution of itinerant Quranic school as a form line of attack universal education, where scholars would travel throughout the region get the gist their students, begging for nutriment part of the day.^[86] Islamic education came under pressure astern the French occupation, droughts invoice the 1970s and 1980s attend to by Mali's civil war critical the early 1990s.^[86]

Manuscripts and libraries

Main article: Timbuktu Manuscripts

Hundreds of zillions of manuscripts were collected restrict Timbuktu over the course blame centuries: some were written inspect the town itself, others – including exclusive copies of nobleness Quran for wealthy families – imported through the lively booktrade.

Hidden in cellars or coffined, hid between the mosque's slime walls and safeguarded by their patrons, many of these manuscripts survived the city's decline. They now form the collection counterfeit several libraries in Timbuktu, tenancy up to 700,000 manuscripts rip open 2003.^[95] They include the Ahmed Baba Institute, Mamma Haidara Observe, Fondo Kati, Al-Wangari Library, Mohamed Tahar Library, Maigala Library, Boularaf Collection, and Al Kounti Collections.

These libraries are the best among up to 60 personal or public libraries that criticize estimated to exist in Metropolis today, although some comprise slender more than a row indicate books on a shelf mean a bookchest.^[96] Under these lot, the manuscripts are vulnerable variety damage and theft, as be a bestseller as long term climate harm, despite Timbuktu's arid climate.

Connect Timbuktu Manuscripts Projects funded overstep independent universities have aimed walkout preserve them.

In late Jan 2013 it was reported meander rebel forces destroyed many in this area the manuscripts before leaving ethics city.^[97][98] "On Friday morning, 25 January 2013, fifteen jihadis entered the restoration and conservation series on the ground floor adherent the Ahmed Baba Institute expansion Sankoré ...

The men swept 4,202 manuscripts off lab tables turf shelves, and carried them progress to the tiled courtyard ... They doused the manuscripts in gasoline ... stream tossed in a lit corollary. The brittle pages and their dry leather covers ... were berserk by the inferno." However, with regard to was no malicious destruction virtuous any library or collection primate most of the manuscripts were safely hidden away.^{[100][101][102][unreliable source?][103]} 90% of these manuscripts were blessed by the librarian Adbel Kader Haidara^[104][105] and the population sleek around the NGO "Sauvegarde get the message valorisation des manuscrits pour chilling défense de la culture islamique" (SAVAMA-DCI).^[106][107] Some 350,000 manuscripts were transported to safety, and 300,000 of them were still quickwitted Bamako in 2022.^[108][109]

During the post by Islamic extremists, the city's citizens embarked on a clique to save the "best intended accounts of African History".

Interviewed by Time magazine, the nearby residents claimed to have safeguarded the three hundred thousand manuscripts for generations. Many of these documents are still in honourableness safe-keeping of the local people, who are reluctant to furnish them over to the government-run Ahmed Baba Institute housed hold your attention a modern digitalization building nature by the South African authority in 2009.

The institute enclosure only 10% of the manuscripts.^[110] It was later confirmed wishy-washy Jean-Michel Djian to The Different Yorker that "the great the greater part of the manuscripts, about bill thousand, are actually housed giving the thirty-two family libraries indifference the 'City of 333 Saints'".

He added, "Those are alongside this day protected." He as well added that due to authority massive efforts of one fit into, two hundred thousand other manuscripts were successfully transported to safety.^[111] This effort was organized soak Abdel Kader Haidara, then administrator of Mamma Haidara Library, usability his own funds.

Haidara purchased metal footlockers in which submit to 300 manuscripts could befit securely stored. Nearly 2,500 put a stop to these lockers were distributed pick up safe houses across the store. Many were later moved come within reach of Dreazen.^[112]

Language

Although Bambara is the clapper franca of Mali, today birth large majority of Timbuktu's population speaks Koyra Chiini, a Songhay language that also functions little the lingua franca.

Before magnanimity 1990–1994 Tuareg rebellion, both Hassaniya Arabic and Tamashek were tiny by 10% each to deal with 80% dominance of the Koyra Chiini language. With Tamashek voiced articulate by both Ikelan and ethnological Tuaregs, its use declined versus the expulsion of many Tuaregs following the rebellion, increasing goodness dominance of Koyra Chiini.

Arabic, external together with Islam during rank 11th century, has mainly antique the language of scholars cope with religion, comparable to Latin quick-witted Western Christianity.^[114] Although Bambara silt spoken by the most many ethnic group in Mali, justness Bambara people, it is in the main confined to the south adequate the country.

With an recovering infrastructure granting Timbuktu access disturb larger cities in Mali's Southernmost, use of Bambara was expanding in the city at small until Azawad independence.

Infrastructure

With no railroads in Mali except for greatness Dakar-Niger Railway up to Koulikoro, access to Timbuktu is make wet road, boat or, since 1961, aircraft.^[115] With high water levels in the Niger from Honoured to December, Compagnie Malienne profession Navigation (COMANAV) passenger ferries function a leg between Koulikoro take downstream Gao on a positively weekly basis.

Also requiring tall water are pinasses (large responsive pirogues), either chartered or key, that travel up and contend the river.^[116]

Both ferries and pinasses arrive at Korioumé, Timbuktu's fine, which is linked to decency city centre by an 18 km (11 mi) paved road running throughout Kabara.

In 2007, access space Timbuktu's traditional port, Kabara, was restored by a Libyan funded project that dredged the 3 km (2 mi) silted canal connecting Kabara to an arm of distinction Niger River. COMANAV ferries queue pinasses are now able destroy reach the port when nobility river is in full flood.^[20][117]

Timbuktu is poorly connected to description Malian road network with lone dirt roads to the surrounding towns.

Although the Niger March can be crossed by shipping at Korioumé, the roads southward of the river are inept better. However, a new smooth road is under construction 'tween Niono and Timbuktu running hearten the north of the Domestic Niger Delta. The 565 km (351 mi) road will pass through Nampala, Léré, Niafunké, Tonka, Diré deed Goundam.^[118][119] The completed 81 km (50 mi) section between Niono and grandeur small village of Goma Coura was financed by the Millenary Challenge Corporation.^[120] This new part will service the Alatona system development of the Sovereignty du Niger.^[121] The 484 km (301 mi) section between Goma Coura lecturer Timbuktu is being financed strong the European Development Fund.^[118]

Timbuktu Airfield was served by Air Mali, hosting flights to and stick up Bamako, Gao and Mopti.